Anti – Semitism during Nazi Period

First of all, we must understand the term anti–Semitism. It was hatred towards Jews on racial basis. Most of the racial ideologues considered physical characteristics as the basis for defining races. It was believed that physical and psychological differences between individuals and races indicated their relative worth. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection led to the development of individual species. He suggested that breeding could make up for the diminishing impact of natural selection. Although he was not a racist but his ideas were used by others in advocating racist ideologies. The zoologist Ernst Haeckel converted Darwin’s teachings into Monism which was based upon the foundations of comparative zoology. According to Haeckel, the central races were the most developed ones. Alfred Ploetz claimed that the Germanic (West Aryan) race was the most outstanding civilized race. There were many others who supported this view. In this regard it is said that the above mentioned scientists who belonged to the class of urban bourgeoisie saw their urban living space threatened by hordes of fecund proletarians bearing the physical and psychological imprints of deplorable living and working conditions. Eugenics and racial hygiene was one response to the social question. This gave way to anti – Semitic theories. Chamberlain considered German as superior to others in all respect. Protestants and Roman Catholics, agreeing with Chamberlain held Jews responsible for liberalism, socialism and Communism.
Now we will see the political processes involved in the development of anti–Semitism. Its foundation was laid as early as the 18th century. In contrast to rest of Europe, the emancipation of Jews took place on a greater scale in Germany. Although these emancipated Jews did not experience equal status. Most Jews resided in particular parts of cities for security reasons and also for ethnic solidarity. About 60% of Jewish population was in the higher level of middle class, outside petty bourgeoisie. They remained under-represented in most areas of civil services. But gradually there was an increase in negative feeling towards them. In a pamphlet published in 1793, Fichte singled out the Jews because they lived in a separate state. Ardent, during 1814 – 1815, regarded the French, Poles and Jews as the curse for Germany and called for purity of races and the prevention of cross breeding. Friedrich Ruhs in 1815, in his pamphlet denied civil rights to the Jews because they practiced different religion and turned down the opportunity to assimilate. Panikos Panayi argues that during second half of the 19th century, motives of 1848 revolution became irrelevant because nationalism triumphed over liberalism. The period between 1848 and 1867 was of progress for the German Jews in all spheres, e.g. number of Jews in state parliament increased and they even gathered wealth, in 1848 their population was 410, 000 which increased to 470, 000 in 1867 etc. The all round development of the Jews strengthened the anti-Semitic feeling among the Germans. Further, entry of large number of eastern European Jews into Germany during the 1890s played a major role in this. This hostility increased at the end of 1916 when the Prussian War Ministry ordered an investigation into the number of Jews serving in the army. Panikos Panayi says, “By 1918 anti-Semitism had become a part of the racist ideology.”
As a reaction to increasing anti-Semitism, Jews began to assimilate, displayed pride in their Jewishness and even took the claims of the Jew haters. After 1871 many Jews quickened their assimilation into the German population through inter-marriages, conversion or name changing. Some leaders of the Jews decided to stand against the rising tide of anti-Semitism, even some organizations came up for this purpose. One of the earliest organizations that came up was Das Judische Comite Vom on 1st December 1880. Zionism also developed in Germany during the Kaiserreich but only Eastern Jews got attracted to this. The assimilation of the Jews is also considered as negative by many as they feel that the Jews were not ready to mix with non-Jews.
The condition of the Jews was no good even during the Weimar period. According to Panayi this period was a link between Wilhelmine and Nazi anti-Semitism. During 1920s eugenic ideas increasingly moved into the mainstream. Weimar represented a nationalist state and an increasingly racist one, especially for Jews, whose position deteriorated, either because of persecution or economic collapse. The other parties including The Catholic Centre Party also resorted to anti-Semitism.
With the coming of Nazis into power, life of the Jews got worse than before. Like rest of the German population, they also faced the consequences of the failed Weimar economy. Statistics show that during 1930s much of the German industrial and market sector was occupied by the Jews. In cultural sector also Jews rose to prominence. To mention some of the names who were important here are Fritz Lang, Max Reinhardt, and Arnold Zweig etc. In politics, they had not any important position except for a few, viz. Walther Rathenau and Rudolf Hilferding. The socio-economic status of the Jews added further fuel to the fire of anti-Semitism. In the early years of 1930s various pamphlets and articles declared removal of the Jews as necessary for revival. Until 1933, the Jews did not face any official discrimination because probably some of the state machinery like court and army had deep anti-Semitic prejudices. With increasing anti-Semitism, the Jews who were proud to be Germans lost their faith.
We can say that the coming of the Nazis represented the most extremist form of anti-Semitic feeling that existed in Germany. Panikos Panayi says, “Nazism essentially combined the concept of the German volk, with its origin in Herder, with the racial ideas which had emerged during the course of the 19th century, so that the Germans became the pure Aryan race, while other groups remained inferior.” In Mein Kampf Hitler compared races of men with species of animals and breeding occurred between animals of the same type. Apart from racial discrimination, Jews were also considered as socialists and Hitler accused Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I. Considering importance of preserving nations, he advocated that the barbaric methods to control non-Aryans were necessary.
The first step taken by the Nazis against the Jews was their exclusion. Racial anthropologists, biologists, hygienicists, economists, historians, geographers and sociologists created the conceptual framework and scientific legitimisation for the implementation of the Nazi racial policy. The first anti-Jewish law was promulgated in 1933. Legislation commenced with the Law for the restoration of the Professional Civil Service, followed by measures against Jewish physicians, teachers and students, which forced them to acquire their pre-emancipation occupation of itinerant peddling. After 1933, anti-Semitic violence declined until Kristallnacht and during this period activities of the Jews were controlled by the state. All the institutions were Nazified by excluding all the Jews from them, but the businesses of the Jews survived. The cultural centres of the Jews were also attacked. The next law towards this was ‘Military Service Law’ of 1935 which made Aryan ancestry mandatory for service in the armed forces. In the same year Nuremberg law was also passed which forbade Germans from marrying or having sexual relations with the Jews. Several institutes of racial hygienicists came up of which the most important was the ‘Kaiser Wilhelm Society’. On 3rd November 1938 by a decree which permitted Jews to alienate their bonds, shares, jewellery and works of art only to the state. On 5th December the regime arbitrarily reduced pensions paid to Jews who had been dismissed from public services. In February 1939, Jews were obliged to surrender all precious metals in their passion to the state. In the months between Kristallnacht and the World War II further measures were taken against the Jews due to which they started migrating. Despite the obstacles put up by the Nazis and the reluctance of other states to accept Jews, about 115,000 migrated in the final 10 months , but migrations does not guaranteed security to them. In the first years of the war, further restrictions were put on the freedom of the German Jews. The other Jews whose business survived the pogrom, now lost them. The term given to this is ‘Aryanization’ of German economy. Apart from these there were several other restrictions put on the Jews, viz. they were suppose to wear a yellow star while coming out , from 1st September 1939, a curfew kept Jews off the streets between 9pm and 5am in summer and 8pm and 6am in winter, their radio sets were confiscated which cut them off from rest of the world, about 45% Jews received hostile behaviour from their non-Jewish fellow mates , over 80% believed that their neighbours were supporting Nazis, more than half suffered persecutions . Even those who survived lived in fear . In such a scenario, Jews were forced to break the laws made by Nazis, in order to survive.
In this case, we must also look at the positive side. As per the statics of Johnson and Reuband, 38% of the surveyed survivors answered that they received significant help from non-Jewish Germans. These help came in the later years of Nazi Germany, when Jews required it the most. About 61% of survivors who remained in Germany after 1941 affirmed that they received significant help from German civilians. Germans helped Jews in various ways, viz. 41% were helped in escaping or hiding, 29% got food, 10% were warned about roundups, deportations etc.
The atrocities on Jews by Nazis were not confined only in Germany but to other parts of the Europe as well. During World War II, Hitler got possession of other European nation, viz. Poland, Netherlands, some parts of Russia etc. He continued with his anti-Semitic policies in these countries as well. There are two personal diaries which give a nice account of the lives of Jews in an anti-Semitic atmosphere. The diary of Mary Berg describes the condition in Poland and Anne Frank describes for Netherlands. Before looking at the descriptions of Mary Berg, we must look at background of her. She was a Polish Jew whose mother was an American. Therefore she was a fortunate one as Jews with passport for neutral countries were exempt from wearing Jewish star and doing forced labour. They even had better chances for survival. She was only 15 years old when Hitler attacked Poland in 1939. She along with her family was pushed to live in a ghetto in Warsaw, where she lived until she moved to U.S.A. in 1944. The contents of her diary are her real life experiences. Later, this diary became very popular.
Mary Berg, in her diary, says that the Nazis were pushing more and more people into the ghettos. The quarter of Lodz which has been turned into the ghetto is one of the oldest and poorest sections of the city which composed mostly of small wooden houses without electricity or plumbing. There was a certain level of inequality even within the ghetto. Terror always surrounded the people but they tried to live a normal life by flirting, romancing, watching theatre plays, going to restaurant, students making and selling paintings on misery for a few penny etc. All these activities within the ghetto were regularly inspected by the Nazis. But gradually, situation started worsening, so self-help organizations started coming up to relief funds. Wealth played a very important role within ghetto as it influenced in getting job and a better living place. It even exempted somebody from forced labour. According to the rule use of French or English was forbidden in public but this rule was regularly broken. Any mode of communication, viz. radio and telephone, were restricted for the Jews. Gazeta Zydowska newspaper was the only legal way of communication within ghettos. Nazis discovered a secret radio station being run in a house. The male members of the house were arrested and shot. Due to lack of sanitation facilities diseases were spreading rapidly in these ghettos, as a result mortality rate was increasing. When the Nazi soldiers went near these ghettos they were caught by diseases, so they held Jews responsible for this. There was also a widespread belief that Nazis spread the diseases in ghettos to test its effect for biological warfare. The shortage of things, whether it be the daily use stuff, eating stuff or medicine in the ghetto led to the smuggling of these indispensible items and selling them at high rates. Therefore, some successful smugglers, viz. Zelig and Silberman made their fortune by smuggling. This shows that in such a scenario money can be made only by dishonest means. Mary Berg describes an incident where an uprising took place in the ghetto and in order to suppress the uprising, Nazi forces attacked the resistors with armoured vehicles. The people who tried to escape were put back into fire by the Nazis. In short, the life in these ghettos had in had increased mortality, lack of food, clothing and medicine, no education, no rights, manhunt, forced labour, racial discrimination etc.
Similarly, Anne Frank gives description of Netherlands where she faced racial discrimination as a teenager. Her family shifted to Netherlands from Germany because of increasing anti-Semitism in Germany. Her father got the opportunity to start a business in Netherlands. But unfortunately, Hitler attacked Netherlands and had to witness Hitler’s anti-Semitic policies even in Netherlands. It was on her 13th birthday that her parents gifted her diary which she called as ‘Kitty’ and where penned down her real life experiences of anti-Semitism. In July 1942, they were forced to leave their house and go into hiding. They were also supposed to go walking because use of public transport was prohibited for them. In the hide out they were not able to contact anybody except for a few ones. After sometime, they were joined by other families. At first they were happy to have a new company but later, it became difficult for them to adjust. The Frank sisters were not able to study properly and they always lived in terror that they will be shot some day. In August 1944 they got arrested as somebody informed about them to the Nazis. Along with them about 100,000 Jews were arrested and sent to the prison at Amsterdam. Then they were interrogated and finally they were deported. Out of the 1,019 passengers, 549—including all children younger than fifteen—were sent directly to the gas chambers. With the other females not selected for immediate death, Frank was sent to deportation where she was forced to strip naked to be disinfected, had her head shaved and was tattooed with an identifying number on her arm. By day, the women were used as slave labour. During the winter of 1944 – 1945, the typhus epidemic broke out which killed Anne and her sister. Otto Frank was the only survivor out of eight.
The story and experiences of Anne Frank is just an example of what Jews went through during the Nazis preoccupied Netherlands. These experiences are not confined only to the Jews of Poland and Netherlands. The terror of anti-Semitism spread even in Eastern Europe, viz. USSR, Czechoslovakia and Romania.
Hitler and other Nazi members found the ultimate solution to the problem of Jews. They decided for the holocaust. Nazis brought the Jews to the concentration camps in such a way that others don’t get to know about it. As mentioned earlier, even those who survived were not allowed to reveal anything. Although, the survey carried out by Johnson and Reuband suggest that most of the Jews knew about the mass – murder through some way or the other. The methods mostly employed by Nazis in killing of Jews were gassing them or shooting them. Burleigh and Wippermann have mentioned some accounts which describe the mass – murder of Jews, e.g. Felix Landau was an SS man who volunteered for the task forces which operated in the Lemberg region. He described the way in which he along with five other soldiers killed 23 Jews. Panayi gives the number of Jews that were killed throughout the Nazi period: in Poland 570,000 out of 825,000; in Czechoslovakia 24,000 leaving only 22,000; 300,000 out of 757,000 in Romania; and in Greece about 10,000 survived out of 70,000 or 80,000. He also mentions the figures given by Lucy Dawidiwicz who estimates that in all the places 5,933,000 out of 8,861,800 Jews were murdered, i.e. 67% of the total Jewish population got diminished. He also says that Bulgaria was able to save all of its Jews.
With the end of World War II and also of Hitler, the process of mass – murder stopped. But the rule of Nazis represented one of the most horrific events in the world history.